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วิกิพีเดีย

ญิซยะฮ์

บทความนี้กล่าวถึงภาษีรายหัว สำหรับภาษีที่ดิน ดูที่ เคาะรอจญ์

ญิซยะฮ์ (อาหรับ: جِزْيَة‎; [d͡ʒizjah]) เป็นการเก็บภาษีต่อหัวรายปีที่เคยใช้สำหรับผู้ที่ไม่ใช่มุสลิม (ษิมมี) ในรัฐที่ปกครองด้วยกฎหมายอิสลาม นักกฎหมายมุสลิมได้กำหนดให้ชายที่อยู่ในวัยผู้ใหญ่, เป็นอิสระ, มีสติในสังคมษิมมีจะต้องจ่ายญิซยะฮ์ โดยยกเว้นผู้หญิง, เด็ก, คนชรา, คนพิการ, คนป่วย, คนบ้า, นักพรต, ฤาษี, ทาส, และมุสตะอ์มิน—ชาวต่างชาติที่ไม่ใช่มุสลิมที่อยู่ในดินแดนมุสลิมเป็นเวลาชั่วคราว ษิมมีที่เข้ารับราชการทหารจะถูกยกเว้นการจ่ายภาษี เพราะพวกเขาไม่มีเงินมากพอจ่ายภาษีได้

อัลกุรอานและฮะดีษกล่าวถึงญิซยะฮ์โดยไม่ได้กล่าวถึงอัตราหรือจำนวนเงิน อย่างไรก็ตาม นักวิชาการส่วนใหญ่ยอมรับว่าผู้นำมุสลิมช่วงแรกก่อตั้งระบบภาษีและบรรณาการในดินแดนที่พวกเขาพิชิต เช่น จักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์ และจักรวรรดิซาเซเนียน

การใช้งานญิซยะฮ์มีอยู่หลายแบบตามประวัติศาสตร์อิสลาม บางครั้งใช้คำว่าเคาะรอจญ์แทนกันได้ โดยมีการเรียกเก็บภาษีจากผู้ที่มิใช่มุสลิมตามรัฐอิสลามบางส่วน เช่น จักรวรรดิออตโตมัน กับรัฐสุลต่านมุสลิมอินเดีย อัตราภาษีที่เก็บมักมีการเปลี่ยนแปลงตามสมรรถนะทางด้านการเงินของผู้จ่าย ข้อมูลเปรียบเทียบการเรียกเก็บภาษีจากมุสลิมกับญิซยะฮ์ต่างกันตามเวลา สถานที่ ภาษีจำเพาะตามการพิจารณา และปัจจัยอื่น ๆ

ในอดีต ศาสนาอิสลามถือว่าภาษีญิซยะฮ์เป็นค่าธรรมเนียมในการปกป้องตนเองโดยผู้นำมุสลิมของผู้มิใช่มุสลิมในการทำพิธีทางศาสนาของตนในเขตปกครองตนเองบางส่วนในรัฐมุสลิม ยกเว้นผู้รับใช้ทหาร และเป็นหลักฐานในการจงรักภักดีของผู้มิใช่มุสลิมในรัฐและกฎหมายมุสลิม บางส่วนเข้าใจว่า ญิซยะฮ์เป็นตราหรือสถานะความอัปยศอดสูของผู้มิใช่มุสลิมในรัฐมุสลิมเพราะไม่ยอมเข้ารับอิสลาม เป็นแหล่งรายได้ที่สำคัญเกิดขึ้นในบางช่วงและสถานที่ (เช่นสมัยอุมัยยะฮ์) ขณะบางส่วนโต้แย้งว่า ถ้ามันเป็นการลงโทษความไม่ศรัทธาของษิมมี ดังนั้นบาทหลวงและพระสงฆ์ก็ไม่มีข้อยกเว้นด้วย

คำนี้ปรากฏในอัลกุรอานในฐานะภาษีหรือบรรณาธิการจากชาวคัมภีร์ โดยเฉพาะชาวยิวและชาวคริสต์ ผู้ที่นับถือศาสนาอื่น เช่น ศาสนาโซโรอัสเตอร์ และศาสนาฮินดู ถูกรวมในกลุ่ม ษิมมี ในภายหลัง และต้องจ่ายญิซยะฮ์ ในอนุทวีปอินเดีย วิธีนี้ถูกยกเลิกในคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 18 โดยเกือบหายไปในช่วงคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20 พร้อมกับการล่มสลายของรัฐอิสลามและการเผยแพร่แนวคิดการยอมรับความต่างทางศาสนา ปัจจุบันไม่มีการกำหนดภาษีนี้อีกในโลกอิสลาม แม้ว่าจะยังมีรายงานในบางองค์กร เช่น ตอลิบานปากีสถานและรัฐอิสลามอิรักและลิแวนต์ พยายามฟื้นฟูวิธีนี้ขึ้นมาใหม่

นักวิชาการอิสลามบางส่วนโต้แย้งว่าผู้มิใช่มุสลิมในรัฐมุสลิมควรจ่ายญิซยะฮ์ ด้วยเหตุผลหลายประการ เช่น ซัยยิด กุฏบ์ มองว่าเป็นบทลงโทษต่อพวก "พหุเทวนิยม" ในขณะที่อับดุรเราะฮ์มาน โดอี (Abdul Rahman Doi) มองว่ามันเหมือนกับซะกาตที่มุสลิมต้องจ่าย รายงานจากคอลิด อะบูลฟัฎล์ มุสลิมสายกลางปฏิเสธระบบษิมมี ซึ่งครอบคลุมถึงญิซยะฮ์ เพราะขัดกับยุคแห่งรัฐชาติและประชาธิปไตย

ดูเพิ่ม

  • ษิมมี
  • เคาะรอจญ์
  • ไลบ์โซลล์ (Leibzoll)
  • ระบบมิลเลตของออตโตมัน
  • ราฟ อัคเชซี (Rav akçesi)
  • ภาษีของชาวยิว
  • ภาษีความอดทน (Tolerance tax)
  • อัลกัฟฟาเราะฮ์

อ้างอิง

  1. Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad (2010). Understanding the Qur'ān: Themes and Style. I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 70, 79. ISBN 978-1845117894.
  2. Abou Al-Fadl 2002, p. 21. "When the Qur'an was revealed, it was common inside and outside of Arabia to levy poll taxes against alien groups. Building upon the historical practice, classical Muslim jurists argued that the poll tax is money collected by the Islamic polity from non-Muslims in return for the protection of the Muslim state. If the Muslim state was incapable of extending such protection to non-Muslims, it was not supposed to levy a poll tax."
  3. Jizyah The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2010), Oxford University Press, Quote: Jizyah: Compensation. Poll tax levied on non-Muslims as a form of tribute and in exchange for an exemption from military service, based on Quran 9:29.
  4. M. Zawati, Hilmi (2002). Is Jihād a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law (Studies in religion & society). Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 63–4. ISBN 978-0773473041.
  5. Wael, B. Hallaq (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations. Cambridge University Press. pp. 332–3. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2.
  6. Ellethy 2014, p. 181. "[...] the insignificant amount of this yearly tax, the fact that it was progressive, that elders, poor people, handicapped, women, children, monks and hermits were exempted, leave no doubt about exploitation or persecution of those who did not accept Islam. Comparing its amount to the obligatory zaka which an ex-dhimmi should give to the Muslim state in case he converts to Islam dismisses the claim that its aim was forced conversions to Islam."
  7. Alshech, Eli (2003). "Islamic Law, Practice, and Legal Doctrine: Exempting the Poor from the Jizya under the Ayyubids (1171-1250)". Islamic Law and Society. 10 (3): 348–375. doi:10.1163/156851903770227584. ...jurists divided the dhimma community into two major groups. The first group consists of all adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community, while the second includes all other dhimmas (i.e., women, slaves, minors, and the insane). Jurists generally agree that members of the second group are to be granted a "blanket" exemption from jizya payment.
  8. Rispler-Chaim, Vardit (2007). Disability in Islamic law. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. p. 44. ISBN 978-1402050527. The Hanbali position is that boys, women, the mentally insane, the zamin, and the blind are exempt from paying jizya. This view is supposedly shared by the Hanafis, Shafi'is, and Malikis.
  9. Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, pp. 192-3.
  10. Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; และคณะ, บ.ก. (2013). The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 283. ISBN 978-0691134840. Free adult males who were not afflicted by any physical or mental illness were required to pay the jizya. Women, children, handicapped, the mentally ill, the elderly, and slaves were exempt, as were all travelers and foreigners who did not settle in Muslim lands. [...] As Islam spread, previous structures of taxation were replaced by the Islamic system, but Muslim leaders often adopted practices of the previous regimes in the application and collection of taxes.
  11. Mapel, D.R. and Nardin, T., eds. (1999), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives, p. 231. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691049724. Quote: "Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces. If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor, the jizya was not levied."
  12. Shah 2008, pp. 19–20.
  13. Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013, pp. 240–1.
  14. Abdel-Haleem 2012, pp. 75–6, 77.
  15. Sabet, Amr (2006), The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24:4, Oxford; pp. 99–100.
  16. Bravmann 2009, pp. 199–201, 204–5, 207–12.
  17. Mohammad, Gharipour (2014). Sacred Precincts: The Religious Architecture of Non-Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World. BRILL. p. XV. ISBN 978-9004280229. Sources indicate that the taxation system of early Islam was not necessarily an innovation of Muslims; it appears that 'Umar adopted the same tax system as was common at the time of the conquest of that territory. The land tax or kharaj was an adapted version of the tax system used in Sassanid Persia. In Syria, 'Umar followed the Byzantine system of collecting two taxes based on the account of lands and heads.
  18. Shah 2008, p. 20. "Jizia was not a specific Islamic invention but was the norm of the time. "Several of the early caliphs made peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire some of which even required them to pay tribute [Jizia] to the Byzantines" (Streusand, 1997)."
  19. Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd. p. 59 ff. There is evidence to show that the Arab conquerors left unchanged the fiscal system that they found prevailing in the lands they conquered from the Byzantines, and that the explanation of jizyah as a capitation-tax is an invention of later jurists, ignorant of the true condition of affairs in the early days of Islam. (Caetani, vol. iv. p. 610 (§ 231); vol. v. p. 449.) H.Lammens: Ziād ibn Abīhi. (Rivista degli Studi Orientali, vol. iv. p. 215.) (online)
  20. Morony, Michael (2005). Iraq after the Muslim conquest. NJ, USA: Gorgias Press. pp. 109, 99–134. ISBN 978-1-59333-315-7.
  21. Levy, Reuben (2002). The social structure of Islam. London New York: Routledge. pp. 310–1. ISBN 978-0-415-20910-6. "There is little doubt that in origin kharaj and jizya were interchangeable terms. In the Arabic papyri of the first century AH only jizya is mentioned, with the general meaning of tribute, while later the poll tax could be called kharaj ala ru'us ahl al-dhimma, i.e. a tax on the heads of protected peoples. The narrower meaning of the word is brought out by Abu Hanifa, "No individual can be liable at the same time to the zakat and to kharaj." [emphasis added]
  22. Satish Chandra (1969), Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 322–40, quote="Although kharaj and jizyah were sometimes treated as synonyms, a number of fourteenth century theological tracts treat them as separate"
  23. Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". ใน Gilbar, Gad (บ.ก.). Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914 : Studies in economic and social history. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. ISBN 978-90-04-07785-0. the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.
  24. Abu Khalil, Shawkiy (2006). al-Islām fī Qafaṣ al-ʾIttihām الإسلام في قفص الإتهام (ภาษาอาหรับ). Dār al-Fikr. p. 149. ISBN 978-1575470047. Quote: و يعين مقدار الجزية إعتبارا لحالتهم الإقتصادية، فيؤخد من الموسرين أكثر و من الوسط أقل منه و من الفقراء شيء قليل جدا. و على الدين لا معاش لهم أو هم عالة على غيرهم يعفون من أداء الجزية. Translation: "The amount of jizya is determined in consideration of their economic status, so that more is taken from the prosperous, less from the middle [class], and a very small amount from the poor (fuqaraʾ). Those who do not have any means of livelihood or depend on support of others are exempted from paying the jizya." (online)
  25. Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013, pp. 82–3.
  26. Abu Zahra, Muhammad. Zahrat al-Tafāsīr زهرة التفاسير (ภาษาอาหรับ). Cairo: Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī. pp. 3277–8. Quote: و ما يعطيه الذمي من المال يسمى جزية؛ [...] و لأنها جزاء لأن يدفع الإسلام عنهم، و يكفيهم مئونة القتال، و لأنها جزاء لما ينفق على فقراء أهل الذمة كما كان يفعل الإمام عمر، [...] و الإسلام قام بحق التساوي بين جميع من يكونون في طاعته، فإن الجزية التي تكون على الذمي تقابل ما يكون على المسلم من تكليفات مالية، فعليه زكاة المال، و عليه صدقات و نذور، و عليه كفارات، و غير ذلك، و لو أحصى كل ما يؤخد من المسلم لتبين أنه لا يقل عما يؤخد من جزية إن لم يزد. و إن الدولة كما ذكرنا تنفق على فقراء أهل الذمة، و لقد روى أن عمر - رضي الله تعالى عنه - وجد شيخا يهوديا يتكفف، فسأله: من أنت يا شيخ؟ قال رجل من أهل الذمة، فقال له: ما أنصفناك أكلنا شبيبتك و ضيعناك في شيخوختك، و أجرى عليه رزقا مستمرا من بيت المال، و قال لخادمه: ابحت عن هذا و ضربائه، و أَجْرِ عليهم رزقا من بيت المال. Translation: "And the money that the dhimmī gives is called jizya: [...] and [it is so named] because it is in return for the protection that they are guaranteed by the Islamic [community], and instead of rendering military service, and since it is [also] in return for what is spent on the poor amongst the dhimmī community (ahl al-dhimma) as ʾImām ʿUmar used to do. [...] and Islam gave the right of equality between all of those who are under its rule, indeed, the jizya that is demanded from the dhimmī corresponds to the financial obligations that are compulsory on the Muslim, so he is obliged [to purify] his wealth [through] zakat, and he is required to pay sadaqat and nudhur, and he is duty-bound to give kaffarat, as well as other things. And if all that is taken from the Muslim was calculated, it would become clear that it isn't less than what is taken by way of jizya, if it isn't more. And as we have mentioned earlier, the state spends on the poor amongst the dhimmī community, and it is narrated that ʿUmar - May God Almighty be pleased with him - found an elderly Jew begging, so he asked him: 'Who are you, old man (shaykh)?' He said, 'I am a man from the dhimma community.' So ʿUmar said to him: 'We have not done justice to you in taking from you when you were young and forsaking you in your old age', so ʿUmar gave him a regular pension from the public treasury (Bayt al-Māl), and he then said to his servant: "Search for him and those like him, and give them out from the public treasury.""
  27. Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd. pp. 60–1. This tax was not imposed on the Christians, as some would have us think, as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith, but was paid by them in common with the other dhimmīs or non-Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army, in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans. (online) Non-Muslims Paying Jizyah In a State of Humiliation by Bassam Zawadi https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/non_muslims_paying_jizyah_in_a_state_of_humiliation
  28. Esposito 1998, p. 34. "They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax (jizya) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the "protected ones" (dhimmi). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians."
  29. Ziauddin Ahmed (1975). "The concept of Jizya in early Islam". Islamic Studies. 14 (4): 293–305. JSTOR 20846971. Quote: The tax of jizya is imposed on the non-Muslims subjects of a Muslim state. In view of the general body of the Fuquha, it is imposed upon the non-Muslims as a badge of humiliation for their unbelief, or by way of mercy for protection given to them by the Muslims. Some Fuqaha consider this tax as punishment for their unbelief, there being no economic motive behind its imposition, because their continued stay in a Muslim land is a crime, hence they have no escape from being humiliated.
  30. Bat Ye'or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam, trans. David Maisel, Paul Fenton, and David Littman (Rutherford: Farleigh Dickinson, 1985), 201-202: "Documents: 19. The Manner of Collecting the Jizya." Ye'or quotes two sixteenth-century narratives of how the Christians must lower themselves literally and ritually and then receive a blow in the payment of the jizya.
  31. Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p.199
  32. ʿImāra, Muhammad (2003). al-Islām wa'l-ʿaqalliyyāt الاسلام والأقليات (ภาษาอาหรับ). Cairo: Maktabat al-Shurūk al-Dawliyya. p. 15. Quote: «ولأن (الجزية) هي (بدل جندية)، لا تُؤخذ إلا من القادرين ماليًا، الذين يستطيعون حمل السلاح وأداء ضريبة القتال دفاعًا عن الوطن، وليست (بدلاً من الإيمان بالإسلام) وإلا لفرضت على الرهبان و رجال الدين .. وبدليل أن الذين اختاروا أداء ضريبة الجندية في صفوف المسلمين، ضد الفرس والروم، وهم على دياناتهم غير الإسلامية - فى الشام .. والعراق .. ومصر - لم تفرض عليهم الجزية، وإنما اقتسموا مع المسلمين الغنائم على قدم المساواة..» Translation: "And since the jizya is in exchange for military service, it is taken only from those who are financially capable, and those who are able to take arms and do military service in defense of a country, and it isn't in exchange for not embracing Islam otherwise [the jizya] would have been taken from monks and the clergy .. and also since those who did volunteer to fight with the Muslims, against the Persians and Byzantines, and who professed a religion other than Islam – in the Levant, Iraq and Egypt – were exempted from the jizya and shared equally the battle gains with the Muslims..." (online)
  33. Matthew Long (jizya entry author) (2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 283–4. ISBN 978-0691134840.
  34. Werner Ende; Udo Steinbach (2010). Islam in the World Today. Cornell University Press. p. 738. ISBN 978-0801445712.
  35. Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. HarperOne. p. 214. ISBN 978-0061189036.
  36. Coming home to Orakzai ABDUL SAMI PARACHA, Dawn.com (JAN 05, 2010). "In December 2008, Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan enforced a strict version of Islamic law in divergence of enviously guarded distinctive tribal culture in Orakzai Agency. Less than a month a later, a decree for jizya was imposed and had to be paid by all minorities if they want protection against local criminal gangs or that they had to convert to Islam."
  37. Vincent J. Cornell (2009). "Jizyah". ใน John L. Esposito (บ.ก.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135.
  38. John Esposito and Emad El-Din Shahin (2013). The Oxford handbook of Islam and politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 149–50. ISBN 978-0-19-539589-1. One of Mawdudi's most significant legacies was the reintroduction into the modern world - and into modern language - of an idealized vision of the Islamic community. [...] Non-Muslims in the Muslim state would be categorized, in classical terms, as dhimmis, a protected class; would be restricted from holding high political office; would have to pay the jizyah poll tax; ...

ข้อมูล

  • Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1991). The Holy Quran. Medina: King Fahd Holy Qur'an Printing Complex.
  • Abou Al-Fadl, Khaled (2002). The Place of Tolerance in Islam. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0229-2.
  • Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad (2012). "The jizya Verse (Q. 9:29): Tax Enforcement on Non-Muslims in the First Muslim State". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 14 (2): 72–89. doi:10.3366/jqs.2012.0056. ISSN 1465-3591.
  • Aisha Y. Musa "jizya: Towards a Qur’ānically-based understanding of a Historically Problematic Term," in Transcendental Thought, November 2011.
  • Lambton, Ann (2013). State and Government in Medieval Islam. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-60521-5.
  • Cahen, Claude. "Ḏj̲izzya". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2 (2nd ed.). Brill.
  • Bravmann, M. M. (2009). The spiritual background of early Islam studies in ancient Arab concepts. Leiden Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17200-5.
  • Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Westview Press, Nov 1, 1999. ISBN 0-8133-3489-6
  • Choudhury, Masudul Alam; Abdul Malik, Uzir (1992). The Foundations of Islamic Political Economy. Hampshire: The Macmillan Press. ISBN 0312068549.
  • Dennett, Daniel Clement (1950). Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674331594.
  • Ellethy, Yaser (2014). Islam, Context, Pluralism and Democracy: Classical and Modern Interpretations (Islamic Studies Series). Routledge. ISBN 978-1138800304.
  • Donner, Fred McGraw (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton University Press.
  • Hoyland, Robert G. (2014). In Gods Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190209650.
  • Narain, Harsh (1990). Jizyah and the spread of Islam. New Delhi: Voice of India.
  • Hunter, Shireen; Malik, Huma; Senturk, Recep (2005). Islam and Human Rights: Advancing a U.S.-Muslim Dialogue. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
  • H.R.H. Prince, Ghazi Muhammad; Ibrahim, Kalin; Mohammad Hashim, Kamali (2013). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad (PDF). The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
  • Shaltut, Mahmoud (2013). Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali (บ.ก.). The Qur'an and Combat (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
  • Kalin, Ibrahim (2013). Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali (บ.ก.). Islam and Peace: A Survey of the Sources of Peace in the Islamic Tradition (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
  • Dagli, Caner (2013). Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali (บ.ก.). Jihad and the Islamic Law of War (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
  • Esposito, John L. (1998). Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511233-7.
  • Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab lands : a history and source book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
  • Shah, Niaz A. (2008). Self-Defense in Islamic and International Law: Assessing Al-Qaeda and the Invasion of Iraq. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230606180.
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  • Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd.
  • Cohen, Mark R. (2008). Under crescent and cross : the Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13931-9.
  • Seed, Patricia. Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640, Cambridge University Press, Oct 27, 1995, ISBN 0-521-49757-4.
  • Tritton, A. S. (2008). Caliphs and their non-Muslim subjects : a critical study of the covenant of ʻUmar. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61181-7.
  • Watt, William Montgomery (1980), Islamic Political Thought: The Basic Concepts (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press).

แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น

  • Jizya – สารานุกรมบริแทนนิกา

ซยะฮ, บทความน, กล, าวถ, งภาษ, รายห, สำหร, บภาษ, เคาะรอจญ, อาหร, ʒizjah, เป, นการเก, บภาษ, อห, วรายป, เคยใช, สำหร, บผ, ไม, ใช, สล, มม, ในร, ฐท, ปกครองด, วยกฎหมายอ, สลาม, กกฎหมายม, สล, มได, กำหนดให, ชายท, อย, ในว, ยผ, ใหญ, เป, นอ, สระ, สต, ในส, งคมษ, มม, จะต, อง. bthkhwamniklawthungphasirayhw sahrbphasithidin duthi ekhaarxcy yisyah xahrb ج ز ي ة d ʒizjah epnkarekbphasitxhwraypithiekhyichsahrbphuthiimichmuslim simmi inrththipkkhrxngdwykdhmayxislam 1 2 3 nkkdhmaymuslimidkahndihchaythixyuinwyphuihy epnxisra mistiinsngkhmsimmicatxngcayyisyah 4 odyykewnphuhying edk khnchra khnphikar khnpwy khnba nkphrt vasi thas 5 6 7 8 9 aelamustaxmin chawtangchatithiimichmuslimthixyuindinaednmuslimepnewlachwkhraw 5 10 simmithiekharbrachkarthharcathukykewnkarcayphasi 1 6 11 12 ephraaphwkekhaimmienginmakphxcayphasiid 6 13 14 xlkurxanaelahadisklawthungyisyahodyimidklawthungxtrahruxcanwnengin 15 xyangirktam nkwichakarswnihyyxmrbwaphunamuslimchwngaerkkxtngrabbphasiaelabrrnakarindinaednthiphwkekhaphichit echn ckrwrrdiibaesnithn aelackrwrrdisaeseniyn 10 16 17 18 19 karichnganyisyahmixyuhlayaebbtamprawtisastrxislam bangkhrngichkhawaekhaarxcyaethnknid 20 21 22 odymikareriykekbphasicakphuthimiichmuslimtamrthxislambangswn echn ckrwrrdixxtotmn kbrthsultanmuslimxinediy 23 xtraphasithiekbmkmikarepliynaeplngtamsmrrthnathangdankarenginkhxngphucay 24 khxmulepriybethiybkareriykekbphasicakmuslimkbyisyahtangkntamewla sthanthi phasicaephaatamkarphicarna aelapccyxun 1 25 26 inxdit sasnaxislamthuxwaphasiyisyahepnkhathrrmeniyminkarpkpxngtnexngodyphunamuslimkhxngphumiichmusliminkarthaphithithangsasnakhxngtninekhtpkkhrxngtnexngbangswninrthmuslim ykewnphurbichthhar aelaepnhlkthaninkarcngrkphkdikhxngphumiichmusliminrthaelakdhmaymuslim 27 28 bangswnekhaicwa yisyahepntrahruxsthanakhwamxpysxdsukhxngphumiichmusliminrthmuslimephraaimyxmekharbxislam 29 30 epnaehlngrayidthisakhyekidkhuninbangchwngaelasthanthi echnsmyxumyyah 31 khnabangswnotaeyngwa thamnepnkarlngothskhwamimsrththakhxngsimmi dngnnbathhlwngaelaphrasngkhkimmikhxykewndwy 32 khanipraktinxlkurxaninthanaphasihruxbrrnathikarcakchawkhmphir odyechphaachawyiwaelachawkhrist phuthinbthuxsasnaxun echn sasnaosorxsetxr aelasasnahindu thukrwminklum simmi inphayhlng aelatxngcayyisyah inxnuthwipxinediy withinithukykelikinkhriststwrrsthi 18 odyekuxbhayipinchwngkhriststwrrsthi 20 phrxmkbkarlmslaykhxngrthxislamaelakarephyaephraenwkhidkaryxmrbkhwamtangthangsasna 33 pccubnimmikarkahndphasinixikinolkxislam 34 35 aemwacayngmiraynganinbangxngkhkr echn txlibanpakisthanaelarthxislamxirkaelaliaewnt phyayamfunfuwithinikhunmaihm 33 36 nkwichakarxislambangswnotaeyngwaphumiichmusliminrthmuslimkhwrcayyisyah dwyehtuphlhlayprakar 37 38 echn syyid kutb mxngwaepnbthlngothstxphwk phhuethwniym inkhnathixbdureraahman odxi Abdul Rahman Doi mxngwamnehmuxnkbsakatthimuslimtxngcay 37 rayngancakkhxlid xabulfdl muslimsayklangptiesthrabbsimmi sungkhrxbkhlumthungyisyah ephraakhdkbyukhaehngrthchatiaelaprachathipity 35 enuxha 1 duephim 2 xangxing 3 khxmul 4 aehlngkhxmulxunduephim aekikhsimmi ekhaarxcy ilbosll Leibzoll rabbmileltkhxngxxtotmn raf xkhechsi Rav akcesi phasikhxngchawyiw phasikhwamxdthn Tolerance tax xlkffaeraahxangxing aekikh 1 0 1 1 1 2 Abdel Haleem Muhammad 2010 Understanding the Qur an Themes and Style I B Tauris amp Co Ltd pp 70 79 ISBN 978 1845117894 Abou Al Fadl 2002 p 21 When the Qur an was revealed it was common inside and outside of Arabia to levy poll taxes against alien groups Building upon the historical practice classical Muslim jurists argued that the poll tax is money collected by the Islamic polity from non Muslims in return for the protection of the Muslim state If the Muslim state was incapable of extending such protection to non Muslims it was not supposed to levy a poll tax Jizyah The Oxford Dictionary of Islam 2010 Oxford University Press Quote Jizyah Compensation Poll tax levied on non Muslims as a form of tribute and in exchange for an exemption from military service based on Quran 9 29 M Zawati Hilmi 2002 Is Jihad a Just War War Peace and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law Studies in religion amp society Edwin Mellen Press pp 63 4 ISBN 978 0773473041 5 0 5 1 Wael B Hallaq 2009 Shari a Theory Practice and Transformations Cambridge University Press pp 332 3 ISBN 978 0 521 86147 2 6 0 6 1 6 2 Ellethy 2014 p 181 the insignificant amount of this yearly tax the fact that it was progressive that elders poor people handicapped women children monks and hermits were exempted leave no doubt about exploitation or persecution of those who did not accept Islam Comparing its amount to the obligatory zaka which an ex dhimmi should give to the Muslim state in case he converts to Islam dismisses the claim that its aim was forced conversions to Islam Alshech Eli 2003 Islamic Law Practice and Legal Doctrine Exempting the Poor from the Jizya under the Ayyubids 1171 1250 Islamic Law and Society 10 3 348 375 doi 10 1163 156851903770227584 jurists divided the dhimma community into two major groups The first group consists of all adult free sane males among the dhimma community while the second includes all other dhimmas i e women slaves minors and the insane Jurists generally agree that members of the second group are to be granted a blanket exemption from jizya payment Rispler Chaim Vardit 2007 Disability in Islamic law Dordrecht the Netherlands Springer p 44 ISBN 978 1402050527 The Hanbali position is that boys women the mentally insane the zamin and the blind are exempt from paying jizya This view is supposedly shared by the Hanafis Shafi is and Malikis Majid Khadduri War and Peace in the Law of Islam pp 192 3 10 0 10 1 Bowering Gerhard Crone Patricia Mirza Mahan aelakhna b k 2013 The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought Princeton N J Princeton University Press p 283 ISBN 978 0691134840 Free adult males who were not afflicted by any physical or mental illness were required to pay the jizya Women children handicapped the mentally ill the elderly and slaves were exempt as were all travelers and foreigners who did not settle in Muslim lands As Islam spread previous structures of taxation were replaced by the Islamic system but Muslim leaders often adopted practices of the previous regimes in the application and collection of taxes Mapel D R and Nardin T eds 1999 International Society Diverse Ethical Perspectives p 231 Princeton University Press ISBN 9780691049724 Quote Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor the jizya was not levied Shah 2008 pp 19 20 Ghazi Kalin amp Kamali 2013 pp 240 1 Abdel Haleem 2012 pp 75 6 77 Sabet Amr 2006 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24 4 Oxford pp 99 100 Bravmann 2009 pp 199 201 204 5 207 12 Mohammad Gharipour 2014 Sacred Precincts The Religious Architecture of Non Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World BRILL p XV ISBN 978 9004280229 Sources indicate that the taxation system of early Islam was not necessarily an innovation of Muslims it appears that Umar adopted the same tax system as was common at the time of the conquest of that territory The land tax or kharaj was an adapted version of the tax system used in Sassanid Persia In Syria Umar followed the Byzantine system of collecting two taxes based on the account of lands and heads Shah 2008 p 20 Jizia was not a specific Islamic invention but was the norm of the time Several of the early caliphs made peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire some of which even required them to pay tribute Jizia to the Byzantines Streusand 1997 Walker Arnold Thomas 1913 Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Constable amp Robinson Ltd p 59 ff There is evidence to show that the Arab conquerors left unchanged the fiscal system that they found prevailing in the lands they conquered from the Byzantines and that the explanation of jizyah as a capitation tax is an invention of later jurists ignorant of the true condition of affairs in the early days of Islam Caetani vol iv p 610 231 vol v p 449 H Lammens Ziad ibn Abihi Rivista degli Studi Orientali vol iv p 215 online Morony Michael 2005 Iraq after the Muslim conquest NJ USA Gorgias Press pp 109 99 134 ISBN 978 1 59333 315 7 Levy Reuben 2002 The social structure of Islam London New York Routledge pp 310 1 ISBN 978 0 415 20910 6 There is little doubt that in origin kharaj and jizya were interchangeable terms In the Arabic papyri of the first century AH only jizya is mentioned with the general meaning of tribute while later the poll tax could be called kharaj ala ru us ahl al dhimma i e a tax on the heads of protected peoples The narrower meaning of the word is brought out by Abu Hanifa No individual can be liable at the same time to the zakat and to kharaj emphasis added Satish Chandra 1969 Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Vol 12 No 3 pp 322 40 quote Although kharaj and jizyah were sometimes treated as synonyms a number of fourteenth century theological tracts treat them as separate Peri Oded 1990 The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth century Jerusalem in Gilbar Gad b k Ottoman Palestine 1800 1914 Studies in economic and social history Leiden E J Brill p 287 ISBN 978 90 04 07785 0 the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole Abu Khalil Shawkiy 2006 al Islam fi Qafaṣ al ʾIttiham الإسلام في قفص الإتهام phasaxahrb Dar al Fikr p 149 ISBN 978 1575470047 Quote و يعين مقدار الجزية إعتبارا لحالتهم الإقتصادية فيؤخد من الموسرين أكثر و من الوسط أقل منه و من الفقراء شيء قليل جدا و على الدين لا معاش لهم أو هم عالة على غيرهم يعفون من أداء الجزية Translation The amount of jizya is determined in consideration of their economic status so that more is taken from the prosperous less from the middle class and a very small amount from the poor fuqaraʾ Those who do not have any means of livelihood or depend on support of others are exempted from paying the jizya online Ghazi Kalin amp Kamali 2013 pp 82 3 Abu Zahra Muhammad Zahrat al Tafasir زهرة التفاسير phasaxahrb Cairo Dar al Fikr al ʿArabi pp 3277 8 Quote و ما يعطيه الذمي من المال يسمى جزية و لأنها جزاء لأن يدفع الإسلام عنهم و يكفيهم مئونة القتال و لأنها جزاء لما ينفق على فقراء أهل الذمة كما كان يفعل الإمام عمر و الإسلام قام بحق التساوي بين جميع من يكونون في طاعته فإن الجزية التي تكون على الذمي تقابل ما يكون على المسلم من تكليفات مالية فعليه زكاة المال و عليه صدقات و نذور و عليه كفارات و غير ذلك و لو أحصى كل ما يؤخد من المسلم لتبين أنه لا يقل عما يؤخد من جزية إن لم يزد و إن الدولة كما ذكرنا تنفق على فقراء أهل الذمة و لقد روى أن عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه وجد شيخا يهوديا يتكفف فسأله من أنت يا شيخ قال رجل من أهل الذمة فقال له ما أنصفناك أكلنا شبيبتك و ضيعناك في شيخوختك و أجرى عليه رزقا مستمرا من بيت المال و قال لخادمه ابحت عن هذا و ضربائه و أ ج ر عليهم رزقا من بيت المال Translation And the money that the dhimmi gives is called jizya and it is so named because it is in return for the protection that they are guaranteed by the Islamic community and instead of rendering military service and since it is also in return for what is spent on the poor amongst the dhimmi community ahl al dhimma as ʾImam ʿUmar used to do and Islam gave the right of equality between all of those who are under its rule indeed the jizya that is demanded from the dhimmi corresponds to the financial obligations that are compulsory on the Muslim so he is obliged to purify his wealth through zakat and he is required to pay sadaqat and nudhur and he is duty bound to give kaffarat as well as other things And if all that is taken from the Muslim was calculated it would become clear that it isn t less than what is taken by way of jizya if it isn t more And as we have mentioned earlier the state spends on the poor amongst the dhimmi community and it is narrated that ʿUmar May God Almighty be pleased with him found an elderly Jew begging so he asked him Who are you old man shaykh He said I am a man from the dhimma community So ʿUmar said to him We have not done justice to you in taking from you when you were young and forsaking you in your old age so ʿUmar gave him a regular pension from the public treasury Bayt al Mal and he then said to his servant Search for him and those like him and give them out from the public treasury Walker Arnold Thomas 1913 Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Constable amp Robinson Ltd pp 60 1 This tax was not imposed on the Christians as some would have us think as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith but was paid by them in common with the other dhimmis or non Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans online Non Muslims Paying Jizyah In a State of Humiliation by Bassam Zawadi https www call to monotheism com non muslims paying jizyah in a state of humiliation Esposito 1998 p 34 They replaced the conquered countries indigenous rulers and armies but preserved much of their government bureaucracy and culture For many in the conquered territories it was no more than an exchange of masters one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine Persian warfare Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal domestic affairs In many ways local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage divorce and inheritance In exchange they were required to pay tribute a poll tax jizya that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service Thus they were called the protected ones dhimmi In effect this often meant lower taxes greater local autonomy rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized Greco Roman elites of Byzantium and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians Ziauddin Ahmed 1975 The concept of Jizya in early Islam Islamic Studies 14 4 293 305 JSTOR 20846971 Quote The tax of jizya is imposed on the non Muslims subjects of a Muslim state In view of the general body of the Fuquha it is imposed upon the non Muslims as a badge of humiliation for their unbelief or by way of mercy for protection given to them by the Muslims Some Fuqaha consider this tax as punishment for their unbelief there being no economic motive behind its imposition because their continued stay in a Muslim land is a crime hence they have no escape from being humiliated Bat Ye or The Dhimmi Jews and Christians under Islam trans David Maisel Paul Fenton and David Littman Rutherford Farleigh Dickinson 1985 201 202 Documents 19 The Manner of Collecting the Jizya Ye or quotes two sixteenth century narratives of how the Christians must lower themselves literally and ritually and then receive a blow in the payment of the jizya Hoyland In God s Path 2015 p 199 ʿImara Muhammad 2003 al Islam wa l ʿaqalliyyat الاسلام والأقليات phasaxahrb Cairo Maktabat al Shuruk al Dawliyya p 15 Quote ولأن الجزية هي بدل جندية لا ت ؤخذ إلا من القادرين مالي ا الذين يستطيعون حمل السلاح وأداء ضريبة القتال دفاع ا عن الوطن وليست بدلا من الإيمان بالإسلام وإلا لفرضت على الرهبان و رجال الدين وبدليل أن الذين اختاروا أداء ضريبة الجندية في صفوف المسلمين ضد الفرس والروم وهم على دياناتهم غير الإسلامية فى الشام والعراق ومصر لم تفرض عليهم الجزية وإنما اقتسموا مع المسلمين الغنائم على قدم المساواة Translation And since the jizya is in exchange for military service it is taken only from those who are financially capable and those who are able to take arms and do military service in defense of a country and it isn t in exchange for not embracing Islam otherwise the jizya would have been taken from monks and the clergy and also since those who did volunteer to fight with the Muslims against the Persians and Byzantines and who professed a religion other than Islam in the Levant Iraq and Egypt were exempted from the jizya and shared equally the battle gains with the Muslims online 33 0 33 1 Matthew Long jizya entry author 2012 The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought Princeton University Press pp 283 4 ISBN 978 0691134840 Werner Ende Udo Steinbach 2010 Islam in the World Today Cornell University Press p 738 ISBN 978 0801445712 35 0 35 1 Abou El Fadl Khaled 2007 The Great Theft Wrestling Islam from the Extremists HarperOne p 214 ISBN 978 0061189036 Coming home to Orakzai ABDUL SAMI PARACHA Dawn com JAN 05 2010 In December 2008 Tehrik e Taliban Pakistan enforced a strict version of Islamic law in divergence of enviously guarded distinctive tribal culture in Orakzai Agency Less than a month a later a decree for jizya was imposed and had to be paid by all minorities if they want protection against local criminal gangs or that they had to convert to Islam 37 0 37 1 Vincent J Cornell 2009 Jizyah in John L Esposito b k The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195305135 John Esposito and Emad El Din Shahin 2013 The Oxford handbook of Islam and politics Oxford UK Oxford University Press pp 149 50 ISBN 978 0 19 539589 1 One of Mawdudi s most significant legacies was the reintroduction into the modern world and into modern language of an idealized vision of the Islamic community Non Muslims in the Muslim state would be categorized in classical terms as dhimmis a protected class would be restricted from holding high political office would have to pay the jizyah poll tax khxmul aekikhAli Abdullah Yusuf 1991 The Holy Quran Medina King Fahd Holy Qur an Printing Complex Abou Al Fadl Khaled 2002 The Place of Tolerance in Islam Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 0229 2 Abdel Haleem Muhammad 2012 The jizya Verse Q 9 29 Tax Enforcement on Non Muslims in the First Muslim State Journal of Qur anic Studies 14 2 72 89 doi 10 3366 jqs 2012 0056 ISSN 1465 3591 Aisha Y Musa jizya Towards a Qur anically based understanding of a Historically Problematic Term in Transcendental Thought November 2011 Lambton Ann 2013 State and Government in Medieval Islam Hoboken Taylor and Francis ISBN 978 1 136 60521 5 Cahen Claude Ḏj izzya Encyclopaedia of Islam 2 2nd ed Brill Bravmann M M 2009 The spiritual background of early Islam studies in ancient Arab concepts Leiden Boston Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17200 5 Cleveland William L A History of the Modern Middle East Westview Press Nov 1 1999 ISBN 0 8133 3489 6 Choudhury Masudul Alam Abdul Malik Uzir 1992 The Foundations of Islamic Political Economy Hampshire The Macmillan Press ISBN 0312068549 Dennett Daniel Clement 1950 Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674331594 Ellethy Yaser 2014 Islam Context Pluralism and Democracy Classical and Modern Interpretations Islamic Studies Series Routledge ISBN 978 1138800304 Donner Fred McGraw 1981 The Early Islamic Conquests Princeton University Press Hoyland Robert G 2014 In Gods Path The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire Oxford University Press ISBN 9780190209650 Narain Harsh 1990 Jizyah and the spread of Islam New Delhi Voice of India Hunter Shireen Malik Huma Senturk Recep 2005 Islam and Human Rights Advancing a U S Muslim Dialogue Center for Strategic and International Studies H R H Prince Ghazi Muhammad Ibrahim Kalin Mohammad Hashim Kamali 2013 War and Peace in Islam The Uses and Abuses of Jihad PDF The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge ISBN 978 1 903682 83 8 Shaltut Mahmoud 2013 Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad Ibrahim Kalin Mohammad Hashim Kamali b k The Qur an and Combat PDF War and Peace in Islam The Uses and Abuses of Jihad The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge ISBN 978 1 903682 83 8 Kalin Ibrahim 2013 Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad Ibrahim Kalin Mohammad Hashim Kamali b k Islam and Peace A Survey of the Sources of Peace in the Islamic Tradition PDF War and Peace in Islam The Uses and Abuses of Jihad The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge ISBN 978 1 903682 83 8 Dagli Caner 2013 Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad Ibrahim Kalin Mohammad Hashim Kamali b k Jihad and the Islamic Law of War PDF War and Peace in Islam The Uses and Abuses of Jihad The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge ISBN 978 1 903682 83 8 Esposito John L 1998 Islam The Straight Path Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 511233 7 Stillman Norman 1979 The Jews of Arab lands a history and source book Philadelphia Jewish Publication Society of America ISBN 978 0 8276 0198 7 Shah Niaz A 2008 Self Defense in Islamic and International Law Assessing Al Qaeda and the Invasion of Iraq Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0230606180 Goiten S D Evidence on the Muslim Poll Tax from Non Muslim Sources Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1963 Vol 6 Walker Arnold Thomas 1913 Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Constable amp Robinson Ltd Cohen Mark R 2008 Under crescent and cross the Jews in the Middle Ages Princeton Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 13931 9 Seed Patricia Ceremonies of Possession in Europe s Conquest of the New World 1492 1640 Cambridge University Press Oct 27 1995 ISBN 0 521 49757 4 Tritton A S 2008 Caliphs and their non Muslim subjects a critical study of the covenant of ʻUmar London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 61181 7 Watt William Montgomery 1980 Islamic Political Thought The Basic Concepts Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press aehlngkhxmulxun aekikh wikikhakhmmikhakhmekiywkb yisyah Jizya saranukrmbriaethnnikaekhathungcak https th wikipedia org w index php title yisyah amp oldid 9330218, wikipedia, วิกิ หนังสือ, หนังสือ, ห้องสมุด,

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