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วิกิพีเดีย

บริติชราช

บริติชราช (อังกฤษ: British Raj) เป็นการปกครองของราชบัลลังก์ของบริเตนในอนุทวีปอินเดีย ซึ่งก็ถูกเรียกอีกอย่างในชื่อ การปกครองของราชบัลลังก์ในอินเดีย (อังกฤษ: Crown rule in India) หรือ การปกครองโดยตรงในอินเดีย (Direct rule in India) โดยดำรงอยู่ตั้งแต่ ค.ศ. 1858 จนถึง ค.ศ. 1947 ซึ่งภูมิภาคที่อยู่ภายใต้การปกครองของบริเตนแห่งนี้ถูกเรียกกันโดยทั่วไปว่า อินเดีย ตามการใช้งานในปัจจุบัน และรวมไปถึงพื้นที่ที่ถูกปกครองจากสหราชอาณาจักรโดยตรง ซึ่งถูกเรียกแบบโดยรวมว่าบริติชอินเดีย และพื้นที่ซึ่งถูกปกครองโดยผู้ปกครองชาวพื้นเมือง แต่เนื่องจากดินแดนเหล่านั้นอยู่ภายใต้การปกครองอย่างสูงสุดของบริเตน จึงทำให้พื้นที่ดังกล่าวถูกเรียกว่ารัฐมหาราชา โดยในบางครั้งภูมิภาคแห่งนี้ถูกเรียกว่า บริติช - อินเดีย หรือ จักรวรรดิอินเดีย ถึงแม้ว่าจะเป็นชื่อเรียกอย่างไม่เป็นทางการก็ตาม

อินเดีย

ค.ศ. 1858–ค.ศ. 1947
แผนที่ของอินเดียใน ค.ศ. 1909 โดยสีชมพูแสดงถึงอินเดียของบริเตนในทั้งสองระดับสี และสีเหลืองแสดงถึงรัฐของเหล่ามหาราชา
สถานะโครงสร้างทางการเมืองของจักรวรรดิบริติช (ซึ่งประกอบด้วยอินเดียของบริเตน และรัฐมหาราชา)
เมืองหลวงกัลกัตตา
(ค.ศ. 1858–1911)
นิวเดลี
(ค.ศ. 1911/1931–1947)
ภาษาราชการอังกฤษและอูรดู
การปกครองรัฐบาลอาณานิคมของบริเตน
พระมหากษัตริย์-จักรพรรดิ/
พระราชินี-จักรพรรดินี
 
• ค.ศ. 1858–1901
พระนางเจ้าวิกตอเรีย
• ค.ศ. 1901–1910
พระเจ้าเอ็ดเวิร์ดที่ 7
• ค.ศ. 1910–1936
พระเจ้าจอร์จที่ 5
• ค.ศ. 1936
พระเจ้าเอ็ดเวิร์ดที่ 8
• ค.ศ. 1936–1947
พระเจ้าจอร์จที่ 6
อุปราช 
• ค.ศ. 1858–1862 (คนแรก)
ชาร์ล แคนนิง
• ค.ศ. 1947 (คนสุดท้าย)
หลุยส์ เมานต์แบ็ตเทน
เลขาธิการแห่งรัฐ 
• ค.ศ. 1858–1859 (คนแรก)
เอ็ดเวิร์ด สแตนเลย์
• ค.ศ. 1947 (คนสุดท้าย)
วิลเลียม แฮร์
สภานิติบัญญัติสภานิติบัญญัติแห่งจักรวรรดิ
ประวัติศาสตร์ 
10 พฤษภาคม ค.ศ. 1857
2 สิงหาคม ค.ศ. 1858
• พระราชบัญญัติอิสรภาพของอินเดีย
18 กรกฎาคม ค.ศ. 1947
14 และ 15 สิงหาคม ค.ศ. 1947
สกุลเงินรูปีอินเดีย
  1. a quasi-federation of presidencies and provinces directly governed by the British Crown through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India
  2. governed by Indian rulers, under the suzerainty of The British Crown exercised through the Viceroy of India)
  3. Note: Simla was the summer capital of the Government of British India, not of the British Raj, i.e. the British Indian Empire, which included the Princely States.
  4. The proclamation for New Delhi to be the capital was made in 1911, but the city was inaugurated as the capital of the Raj in February 1931.

ก่อนหน้ายุคบริติชราช อังกฤษได้ปกครองบรรดาดินแดนในอนุทวีปอินเดียผ่านบริษัทอินเดียตะวันออกกว่าร้อยปี ซึ่งบริษัทนี้มีกองเรือและกองทหารเป็นของตนเอง การปกครองโดยบริษัทฯได้สิ้นสุดลงเมื่อมีการตราพระราชบัญญัติรัฐบาลอินเดีย ค.ศ. 1858 ขึ้น ในการนี้ สมเด็จพระราชินีนาถวิกตอเรียได้สถาปนาพระองค์เป็นจักรพรรดินีนาถแห่งอินเดีย ทรงส่งขุนนางไปปกครองอินเดียในตำแหน่งอุปราชและข้าหลวงต่างพระองค์ ต่อมาภายหลังสงครามโลกครั้งที่สอง ก็ได้มีการแบ่งอินเดียแบ่งออกเป็นสองประเทศในเครือจักรภพคืออินเดีย (ประเทศอินเดียในปัจจุบัน) และปากีสถาน (ประเทศปากีสถานและประเทศบังกลาเทศในปัจจุบัน) ส่วนพม่านั้นได้แยกตัวออกจากรัฐบาลบริติชอินเดียในปี ค.ศ. 1937 และถูกปกครองโดยตรงจากรัฐบาลสหราชอาณาจักรตั้งแต่บัดนั้น

บริติชราชประกอบไปด้วยดินแดนที่เป็นประเทศอินเดียและบังกลาเทศในปัจจุบัน อีกทั้งยังมีเอเดน (1839-1937), พม่าตอนบน (1858-1937), และพม่าตอนล่าง (1886-1937), โซมาลิแลนด์ของบริเตน (1884-98), รัฐทรูเชียล (1820-1947), และ สิงคโปร์ (1858-67) นอกจากนี้ บริติชราชยังมีเขตอำนาจถึงดินแดนในปกครองอังกฤษในตะวันออกกลาง เงินตรารูปีอินเดียใช้กันอย่างแพร่หลายในอนุทวีปอินเดีย อย่างไรก็ตาม ในบรรดาดินแดนในบังคับของอังกฤษเหล่านี้ บริติชซีลอน หรือศรีลังกาในยุคสหราชอณาจักร มีฐานะเป็นคราวน์โคโลนีที่ไม่ขึ้นกับรัฐบาลอุปราชแห่งอินเดีย

ราชอาณาจักรเนปาลและภูฏาน แม้จะมีความขัดแย้งกับสหราชอาณาจักร แต่ก็ได้ลงนามทำสนธิสัญญากัน และได้รับการยอมรับในฐานะรัฐอิสระและไม่ใช่ส่วนหนึ่งในบริติชราช ราชอาณาจักรสิกขิมได้รับการตั้งให้เป็นรัฐเจ้าครองนครหลังการลงนามในสนธิสัญญาอังกฤษ-สิกขิมในปี 1862 อย่างไรก็ตาม ประเด็นของความเป็นอธิปไตยยังคงไม่ได้กำหนดอะไรทั้งสิ้น.มัลดีฟส์เป็นรัฐในอารักขาของบริเตนตั้งแต่ปี 1867 ถึงปี 1965 ไม่ใช่ส่วนหนึ่งในบริติชราช

เหรียญทองหนึ่งโมอูร์ (เท่ากับ 15 เหรียญเงินรูปี) เป็นเงินตราที่ใช้ในบริติชราชตลอดจนในเนปาลและอัฟกานิสถาน

บริติชอินเดียและรัฐมหาราชา

อินเดียในยุคของบริติชราช ประกอบด้วยดินแดนสองประเภท คือ บริติชอินเดีย ปกครองและบริหารโดยรัฐบาลกลาง กับ รัฐพื้นเมือง (รัฐมหาราชา) ปกครองโดยเจ้าอินเดียแต่บริหารโดยรัฐบาลกลาง ทั้งนี้ในมาตรา 18 ของพระราชบัญญัติจำกัดความ ค.ศ. 1889 (Interpretation Act) บัญญัติไว้ว่า:

(4.) คำว่า "บริติชอินเดีย" นั้นหมายถึงดินแดนและสถานที่ทั้งปวงในแผ่นดินแว่นแคว้นในสมเด็จฯ ซึ่งขณะนี้อยู่ในปกครองโดยสมเด็จฯผ่านทางข้าหลวงต่างพระองค์แห่งอินเดีย หรือผ่านข้าหลวงหรือเจ้าพนักงานอื่นใดอันขึ้นกับข้าหลวงต่างพระองค์แห่งอินเดีย
(5.) คำว่า "อินเดีย" นั้นหมายถึงบริติชอินเดียพร้อมด้วยดินแดนของบรรดาเจ้าหรือผู้นำพื้นเมืองภายใต้พระราชอำนาจในสมเด็จฯ ซึ่งทรงบริหารผ่านข้าหลวงต่างพระองค์แห่งอินเดีย หรือผ่านข้าหลวงหรือเจ้าพนักงานอื่นใดอันขึ้นกับข้าหลวงต่างพระองค์แห่งอินเดีย

โดยทั่วไป คำว่า "บริติชอินเดีย" นั้นถูกใช้เพื่อสื่อถึงอนุทวีปอินเดียภายใต้การปกครองของบริษัทอินเดียตะวันออกระหว่าง ค.ศ. 1600 ถึง 1858 นอกจากยังคำว่าบริติชอินเดีย ยังใช้สื่อถึงชาวอังกฤษในอินเดียด้วย ส่วนคำว่า "จักรวรรดิอินเดีย" นั้นเป็นคำที่ไม่ถูกใช้ในสารบบกฎหมาย แต่เนื่องจากกษัตริย์อังกฤษทรงปกครองอินเดียในพระอิสริยยศ จักรพรรดิแห่งอินเดีย ดังนั้นเวลากษัตริย์อังกฤษมีพระราชดำรัสไปยังรัฐสภาจึงมักจะเรียกอินเดียว่า "จักรวรรดิอินเดีย" ทั้งนี้ หนังสือเดินทางที่ออกโดยรัฐบาลบริติชอินเดียนั้น ปรากฏคำว่า "Indian Empire" บนปก และปรากฏคำว่า "Empire of India" อยู่ด้านใน นอกจากนี้ยังมีการสถาปนาเครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ์ที่มีชื่อว่า เครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ์อันสูงส่งยิ่งแห่งจักรวรรดิอินเดีย ด้วย

มณฑลขนาดใหญ่

ในช่วงเปลี่ยนผ่านสู่คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20 บริติชอินเดียประกอบด้วยมณฑลทั้งสิ้น 8 มณฑล ซึ่งมณฑลเหล่านั้นได้รับการปกครองโดยผู้ว่าราชการ หรือรองผู้ว่าราชการ

เขตการปกครองและประชากร (ไม่รวมรัฐพื้นเมือง) ในประมาณ ค.ศ. 1907
มณฑลของบริติชอินเดีย
(และดินแดนในปัจจุบัน)
พื้นที่ทั้งหมด ประชากรใน ค.ศ. 1901
(ล้านคน)
ตำแหน่งเจ้าหน้าที่
ที่เป็นหัวหน้าการบริหาร
อัสสัม
(รัฐอัสสัม, รัฐอรุณาจัลประเทศ, รัฐเมฆาลัย, รัฐมิโซรัม, รัฐนาคาแลนด์)
130,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
50,000 ตารางไมล์
6 หัวหน้าคณะกรรมาธิการ
เบงกอล
(ประเทศบังกลาเทศ, รัฐเบงกอลตะวันตก, รัฐพิหาร, รัฐฌารขัณฑ์ และรัฐโอฑิศา)
390,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
150,000 ตารางไมล์
75 รองผู้ว่าราชการ
บอมเบย์
(แคว้นสินธ์ และบางส่วนของรัฐมหาราษฏระ, รัฐคุชราต และรัฐกรณาฏกะ)
320,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
120,000 ตารางไมล์
19 ผู้ว่าราชการในสภา
พม่า
(ประเทศพม่า)
440,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
170,000 ตารางไมล์
9 รองผู้ว่าราชการ
มณฑลกลางและเบราร์
(รัฐมัธยประเทศ และบางส่วนของรัฐมหาราษฏระ, รัฐฉัตตีสครห์ และรัฐโอฑิศา)
270,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
100,000 ตารางไมล์
13 หัวหน้าคณะกรรมาธิการ
มัทราส
(รัฐอานธรประเทศ, รัฐทมิฬนาฑู และบางส่วนของรัฐเกรละ, รัฐกรณาฏกะ, รัฐโอฑิศา และรัฐเตลังคานา)
370,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
140,000 ตารางไมล์
38 ผู้ว่าราชการในสภา
ปัญจาบ
(แคว้นปัญจาบ, ดินแดนนครหลวงอิสลามาบาด, รัฐปัญจาบ, รัฐหรยาณา, รัฐหิมาจัลประเทศ, รัฐฉัตติสครห์ และดินแดนนครหลวงแห่งชาติเดลี)
250,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
97,000 ตารางไมล์
20 รองผู้ว่าราชการ
สหมณฑล
(รัฐอุตตรประเทศและรัฐอุตตราขัณฑ์)
280,000 ตารางกิโลเมตร
110,000 ตารางไมล์
48 รองผู้ว่าราชการ

ในช่วงของการแบ่งเบงกอล (ค.ศ. 1905–1913) มณฑลอัสสัมและเบงกอลตะวันออกได้รับการก่อตั้งขึ้นในฐานะเขตรองผู้ว่าราชการ ใน ค.ศ. 1911 มณฑลเบงกอลตะวันออกถูกรวมกับมณฑลเบงกอลอีกครั้ง และมณฑลใหม่ทางตะวันออกได้กลายไปเป็นมณฑลอัสสัม, เบงกอล, พิหาร และโอฑิศา

ธงที่เกี่ยวข้อง

หมายเหตุ

  1. มาจากคำในภาษาฮินดี คำว่า rāj ที่หมายถึงอาณาจักร, รัฐ หรือจักรวรรดิ

อ้างอิง

  1. Interpretation Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 63), s. 18.
  2. "Calcutta (Kalikata)", The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. IX Bomjur to Central India, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260,  —Capital of the Indian Empire, situated in 22° 34' N and 88° 22' E, on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river, within the Twenty-four Parganas District, Bengal
  3. "Simla Town", The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XXII Samadhiāla to Singhāna, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260,  —Head-quarters of Simla District, Punjab, and the summer capital of the Government of India, situated on a transverse spur of the Central Himālayan system system, in 31° 6' N and 77° 10' E, at a mean elevation above sea-level of 7,084 feet.
  4. Vejdani, Farzin (2015), Making History in Iran: Education, Nationalism, and Print Culture, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 24–25, ISBN 978-0-8047-9153-3,  Although the official languages of administration in India shifted from Persian to English and Urdu in 1837, Persian continued to be taught and read there through the early twentieth century.
  5. Everaert, Christine (2010), Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu, Leiden and Boston: BRILL, pp. 253–254, ISBN 978-90-04-17731-4,  It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.
    • Hirst, Jacqueline Suthren; Zavros, John (2011), Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-44787-4,  As the (Mughal) empire began to decline in the mid-eighteenth century, some of these regional administrations assumed a greater degree of power. Amongst these ... was the East India Company, a British trading company established by Royal Charter of Elizabeth I of England in 1600. The Company gradually expanded its influence in South Asia, in the first instance through coastal trading posts at Surat, Madras and Calcutta. (The British) expanded their influence, winning political control of Bengal and Bihar after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. From here, the Company expanded its influence dramatically across the subcontinent. By 1857, it had direct control over much of the region. The great rebellion of that year, however, demonstrated the limitations of this commercial company's ability to administer these vast territories, and in 1858 the Company was effectively nationalized, with the British Crown assuming administrative control. Hence began the period known as the British Raj, which ended in 1947 with the partition of the subcontinent into the independent nation-states of India and Pakistan.
    • Salomone, Rosemary (2022), The Rise of English: Global Politics and the Power of Language, Oxford University Press, p. 236, ISBN 978-0-19-062561-0,  Between 1858, when the British East India Company transferred power to British Crown rule (the "British Raj"), and 1947, when India gained independence, English gradually developed into the language of government and education. It allowed the Raj to maintain control by creating an elite gentry schooled in British mores, primed to participate in public life, and loyal to the Crown.
    • Steinback, Susie L. (2012), Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain, London and New York: Routledge, p. 68, ISBN 978-0-415-77408-6,  The rebellion was put down by the end of 1858. The British government passed the Government of India Act, and began direct Crown rule. This era was referred to as the British Raj (though in practice much remained the same).
    • Ahmed, Omar (2015), Studying Indian Cinema, Auteur (now an imprint of Liverpool University Press), p. 221, ISBN 9781800347380,  The film opens with what is a lengthy prologue, contextualising the time and place through a detailed voice-over by Amitabh Bachchan. We are told that the year is 1893. This is significant as it was the height of the British Raj, a period of crown rule lasting from 1858 to 1947.
    • Wright, Edmund (2015), A Dictionary of World History, Oxford University Press, p. 537, ISBN 978-0-19-968569-1,  More than 500 Indian kingdoms and principalities […] existed during the 'British Raj' period (1858–1947) The rule is also called Crown rule in India
    • Fair, C. Christine (2014), Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War, Oxford University Press, p. 61, ISBN 978-0-19-989270-9,  […] by 1909 the Government of India, reflecting on 50 years of Crown rule after the rebellion, could boast that […]
    • Glanville, Luke (2013), Sovereignty and the Responsibility to Protect: A New History, University of Chicago Press, p. 120, ISBN 978-0-226-07708-6 Quote: "Mill, who was himself employed by the British East India company from the age of seventeen until the British government assumed direct rule over India in 1858."
    • Pykett, Lyn (2006), Wilkie Collins, Oxford World's Classics: Authors in Context, Oxford University Press, p. 160, ISBN 978-0-19-284034-9,  In part, the Mutiny was a reaction against this upheavel of traditional Indian society. The suppression of the Mutiny after a year of fighting was followed by the break-up of the East India Company, the exile of the deposed emperor and the establishment of the British Raj, and direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by the British.
    • Lowe, Lisa (2015), The Intimacies of Four Continents, Duke University Press, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-8223-7564-7,  Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1858, when following the 1857 Indian Rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj.
    • Vanderven, Elizabeth (2019), "National Education Systems: Asia", ใน Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (บ.ก.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education, Oxford University Press, p. 213–227, 222, ISBN 978-0-19-934003-3,  During the British East India Company's domination of the Indian subcontinent (1757–1858) and the subsequent British Raj (1858–1947), it was Western-style education that came to be promoted by many as the base upon which a national and uniform education system should be built.
    • Lapidus, Ira M. (2014), A History of Islamic Societies (3 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 393, ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9,  Table 14. Muslim India: outline chronology
      Mughal Empire ... 1526–1858
      Akbar I ... 1556–1605
      Aurengzeb ... 1658–1707
      British victory at Plassey ... 1757
      Britain becomes paramount power ... 1818
      British Raj ... 1858–1947
  6. Bowen, H. V.; Mancke, Elizabeth; Reid, John G. (2012), Britain's Oceanic Empire: Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds, C. 1550–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 106, ISBN 978-1-107-02014-6 Quote: "British India, meanwhile, was itself the powerful 'metropolis' of its own colonial empire, 'the Indian empire'."
  7. British Empire - Relations with Bhutan
  8. British Empire - Relations with Nepal
  9. . คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2013-02-10. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2016-12-23.
  10. Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 46

บรรณานุกรม

แหล่งอ้างอิงเกี่ยวกับด้านการสำรวจ

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แหล่งอ้างอิงเกี่ยวกับหัวข้อที่ถูกศึกษาเป็นพิเศษ

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  • Bayly, Christopher; Harper, Timothy (2007), Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-02153-2, สืบค้นเมื่อ 21 September 2013
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แหล่งอ้างอิงเกี่ยวกับด้านเศรษฐกิจและประวัติศาสตร์สังคม

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แหล่งอ้างอิงเกี่ยวกับประวัติศาสตร์นิพนธ์และความทรงจำ

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  • Nayak, Bhabani Shankar. "Colonial world of postcolonial historians: reification, theoreticism, and the neoliberal reinvention of tribal identity in India." Journal of Asian and African Studies 56.3 (2021): 511-532 online.
  • Parkash, Jai. "Major trends of historiography of revolutionary movement in India – Phase II." (PhD dissertation, Maharshi Dayanand University, 2013). online
  • Philips, Cyril H. ed. Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon (1961), reviews the older scholarship
  • Stern, Philip J (2009). "History and Historiography of the English East India Company: Past, Present, and Future". History Compass. 7 (4): 1146–80. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00617.x.
  • Stern, Philip J. "Early Eighteenth-Century British India: Antimeridian or antemeridiem?." 'Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 21.2 (2020) pp 1–26, focus on C.A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian online.
  • Whitehead, Clive (2005). "The historiography of British imperial education policy, Part I: India". History of Education. 34 (3): 315–329. doi:10.1080/00467600500065340. S2CID 144515505.
  • Winks, Robin, ed. Historiography (1999) vol. 5 in William Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire
  • Winks, Robin W. The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966)
  • Young, Richard Fox, ed. (2009). Indian Christian Historiography from Below, from Above, and in Between India and the Indianness of Christianity: Essays on Understanding – Historical, Theological, and Bibliographical – in Honor of Robert Eric Frykenberg

หนังสืออ่านเพิ่ม

  • Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 55–79.
  • Simon Report (1930) vol 1, wide-ranging survey of conditions
  • Editors, Charles Rivers (2016). The British Raj: The History and Legacy of Great Britain's Imperialism in India and the Indian subcontinent.
  • Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1912). Responsible government in the dominions. The Clarendon press., major primary source

หนังสือประจำรายปีและการบันทึกทางสถิติ

  • Indian Year-book for 1862: A review of social, intellectual, and religious progress in India and Ceylon (1863), ed. by John Murdoch online edition 1861 edition
  • The Year-book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the colonies and India: a statistical record of the resources and trade of the colonial and Indian possessions of the British Empire (2nd ed.), India, 1893, pp. 375–462 – โดยทาง Google Books
  • The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. online edition
  • Statistical abstract relating to British India, from 1895–96 to 1904–05 (London, 1906) full text online,
  • The Cyclopedia of India: biographical, historical, administrative, commercial (1908) business history, biographies, illustrations
  • The Indian Year Book: 1914 (1914)
  • The Indian Annual Register: A digest of public affairs of India regarding the nation's activities in the matters, political, economic, industrial, educational, etc. during the period 1919–1947 online
    • 1930 edition
    • 1921 edition
    • 1919–1947 editions

บร, ชราช, บทความน, างอ, งคร, สต, กราช, คร, สต, ทศวรรษ, คร, สต, ศตวรรษ, งเป, นสาระสำค, ญของเน, อหา, งกฤษ, british, เป, นการปกครองของราชบ, ลล, งก, ของบร, เตนในอน, ทว, ปอ, นเด, งก, กเร, ยกอ, กอย, างในช, การปกครองของราชบ, ลล, งก, ในอ, นเด, งกฤษ, crown, rule, india. kh s bthkhwamnixangxingkhristskrach khristthswrrs khriststwrrs sungepnsarasakhykhxngenuxha britichrach xngkvs British Raj a epnkarpkkhrxngkhxngrachbllngkkhxngbrietninxnuthwipxinediy 6 sungkthukeriykxikxyanginchux karpkkhrxngkhxngrachbllngkinxinediy 7 xngkvs Crown rule in India hrux karpkkhrxngodytrnginxinediy 8 Direct rule in India odydarngxyutngaet kh s 1858 cnthung kh s 1947 9 sungphumiphakhthixyuphayitkarpkkhrxngkhxngbrietnaehngnithukeriykknodythwipwa xinediy tamkarichnganinpccubn aelarwmipthungphunthithithukpkkhrxngcakshrachxanackrodytrng sungthukeriykaebbodyrwmwabritichxinediy aelaphunthisungthukpkkhrxngodyphupkkhrxngchawphunemuxng aetenuxngcakdinaednehlannxyuphayitkarpkkhrxngxyangsungsudkhxngbrietn cungthaihphunthidngklawthukeriykwarthmharacha odyinbangkhrngphumiphakhaehngnithukeriykwa britich xinediy hrux ckrwrrdixinediy thungaemwacaepnchuxeriykxyangimepnthangkarktam 10 xinediykh s 1858 kh s 1947aephnthikhxngxinediyin kh s 1909 odysichmphuaesdngthungxinediykhxngbrietninthngsxngradbsi aelasiehluxngaesdngthungrthkhxngehlamharachasthanaokhrngsrangthangkaremuxngkhxngckrwrrdibritich sungprakxbdwyxinediykhxngbrietn a aelarthmharacha b 1 emuxnghlwngklktta 2 c kh s 1858 1911 niwedli kh s 1911 1931 d 1947 phasarachkarxngkvsaelaxurdu 4 5 karpkkhrxngrthbalxananikhmkhxngbrietnphramhakstriy ckrphrrdi phrarachini ckrphrrdini kh s 1858 1901phranangecawiktxeriy kh s 1901 1910phraecaexdewirdthi 7 kh s 1910 1936phraecacxrcthi 5 kh s 1936phraecaexdewirdthi 8 kh s 1936 1947phraecacxrcthi 6xuprach kh s 1858 1862 khnaerk charl aekhnning kh s 1947 khnsudthay hluys emantaebtethnelkhathikaraehngrth kh s 1858 1859 khnaerk exdewird saetnely kh s 1947 khnsudthay wileliym aehrsphanitibyytisphanitibyytiaehngckrwrrdiprawtisastr kbtxinediy10 phvsphakhm kh s 1857 phrarachbyytirthbalxinediy2 singhakhm kh s 1858 phrarachbyytixisrphaphkhxngxinediy18 krkdakhm kh s 1947 karaebngxinediy14 aela 15 singhakhm kh s 1947skulenginrupixinediykxnhna thdipkh s 1858 ckrwrrdiomkulkarpkkhrxngkhxngbristhinxinediy kh s 1947 xinediyinekhruxckrphphpakisthaninekhruxckrphph a quasi federation of presidencies and provinces directly governed by the British Crown through the Viceroy and Governor General of India governed by Indian rulers under the suzerainty of The British Crown exercised through the Viceroy of India Note Simla was the summer capital of the Government of British India not of the British Raj i e the British Indian Empire which included the Princely States 3 The proclamation for New Delhi to be the capital was made in 1911 but the city was inaugurated as the capital of the Raj in February 1931 kxnhnayukhbritichrach xngkvsidpkkhrxngbrrdadinaedninxnuthwipxinediyphanbristhxinediytawnxxkkwarxypi sungbristhnimikxngeruxaelakxngthharepnkhxngtnexng karpkkhrxngodybristhidsinsudlngemuxmikartraphrarachbyytirthbalxinediy kh s 1858 khun inkarni smedcphrarachininathwiktxeriyidsthapnaphraxngkhepnckrphrrdininathaehngxinediy thrngsngkhunnangippkkhrxngxinediyintaaehnngxuprachaelakhahlwngtangphraxngkh txmaphayhlngsngkhramolkkhrngthisxng kidmikaraebngxinediyaebngxxkepnsxngpraethsinekhruxckrphphkhuxxinediy praethsxinediyinpccubn aelapakisthan praethspakisthanaelapraethsbngklaethsinpccubn swnphmannidaeyktwxxkcakrthbalbritichxinediyinpi kh s 1937 aelathukpkkhrxngodytrngcakrthbalshrachxanackrtngaetbdnnbritichrachprakxbipdwydinaednthiepnpraethsxinediyaelabngklaethsinpccubn xikthngyngmiexedn 1839 1937 phmatxnbn 1858 1937 aelaphmatxnlang 1886 1937 osmaliaelndkhxngbrietn 1884 98 rththruechiyl 1820 1947 aela singkhopr 1858 67 nxkcakni britichrachyngmiekhtxanacthungdinaedninpkkhrxngxngkvsintawnxxkklang engintrarupixinediyichknxyangaephrhlayinxnuthwipxinediy xyangirktam inbrrdadinaedninbngkhbkhxngxngkvsehlani britichsilxn hruxsrilngkainyukhshrachxnackr mithanaepnkhrawnokholnithiimkhunkbrthbalxuprachaehngxinediyrachxanackrenpalaelaphutan aemcamikhwamkhdaeyngkbshrachxanackr aetkidlngnamthasnthisyyakn aelaidrbkaryxmrbinthanarthxisraaelaimichswnhnunginbritichrach 11 12 rachxanackrsikkhimidrbkartngihepnrthecakhrxngnkhrhlngkarlngnaminsnthisyyaxngkvs sikkhiminpi 1862 xyangirktam praednkhxngkhwamepnxthipityyngkhngimidkahndxairthngsin mldifsepnrthinxarkkhakhxngbrietntngaetpi 1867 thungpi 1965 imichswnhnunginbritichrach ehriyythxnghnungomxur ethakb 15 ehriyyenginrupi epnengintrathiichinbritichrachtlxdcninenpalaelaxfkanisthan enuxha 1 britichxinediyaelarthmharacha 1 1 mnthlkhnadihy 2 thngthiekiywkhxng 3 hmayehtu 4 xangxing 5 brrnanukrm 5 1 aehlngxangxingekiywkbdankarsarwc 5 2 aehlngxangxingekiywkbhwkhxthithuksuksaepnphiess 5 3 aehlngxangxingekiywkbdanesrsthkicaelaprawtisastrsngkhm 5 4 aehlngxangxingekiywkbprawtisastrniphnthaelakhwamthrngca 6 hnngsuxxanephim 6 1 hnngsuxpracaraypiaelakarbnthukthangsthitibritichxinediyaelarthmharacha aekikhxinediyinyukhkhxngbritichrach prakxbdwydinaednsxngpraephth khux britichxinediy pkkhrxngaelabriharodyrthbalklang kb rthphunemuxng rthmharacha pkkhrxngodyecaxinediyaetbriharodyrthbalklang thngniinmatra 18 khxngphrarachbyyticakdkhwam kh s 1889 Interpretation Act byytiiwwa 4 khawa britichxinediy nnhmaythungdinaednaelasthanthithngpwnginaephndinaewnaekhwninsmedc sungkhnanixyuinpkkhrxngodysmedcphanthangkhahlwngtangphraxngkhaehngxinediy hruxphankhahlwnghruxecaphnknganxunidxnkhunkbkhahlwngtangphraxngkhaehngxinediy 5 khawa xinediy nnhmaythungbritichxinediyphrxmdwydinaednkhxngbrrdaecahruxphunaphunemuxngphayitphrarachxanacinsmedc sungthrngbriharphankhahlwngtangphraxngkhaehngxinediy hruxphankhahlwnghruxecaphnknganxunidxnkhunkbkhahlwngtangphraxngkhaehngxinediy 1 odythwip khawa britichxinediy nnthukichephuxsuxthungxnuthwipxinediyphayitkarpkkhrxngkhxngbristhxinediytawnxxkrahwang kh s 1600 thung 1858 nxkcakyngkhawabritichxinediy yngichsuxthungchawxngkvsinxinediydwy swnkhawa ckrwrrdixinediy nnepnkhathiimthukichinsarbbkdhmay aetenuxngcakkstriyxngkvsthrngpkkhrxngxinediyinphraxisriyys ckrphrrdiaehngxinediy dngnnewlakstriyxngkvsmiphrarachdarsipyngrthsphacungmkcaeriykxinediywa ckrwrrdixinediy thngni hnngsuxedinthangthixxkodyrthbalbritichxinediynn praktkhawa Indian Empire bnpk aelapraktkhawa Empire of India xyudanin 13 nxkcakniyngmikarsthapnaekhruxngrachxisriyaphrnthimichuxwa ekhruxngrachxisriyaphrnxnsungsngyingaehngckrwrrdixinediy dwy mnthlkhnadihy aekikh dubthkhwamhlkthi ekhtpkkhrxngaelamnthlkhxngbritichxinediy inchwngepliynphansukhriststwrrsthi 20 britichxinediyprakxbdwymnthlthngsin 8 mnthl sungmnthlehlannidrbkarpkkhrxngodyphuwarachkar hruxrxngphuwarachkar ekhtkarpkkhrxngaelaprachakr imrwmrthphunemuxng inpraman kh s 1907 14 mnthlkhxngbritichxinediy aeladinaedninpccubn phunthithnghmd prachakrin kh s 1901 lankhn taaehnngecahnathithiepnhwhnakarbriharxssm rthxssm rthxrunaclpraeths rthemkhaly rthmiosrm rthnakhaaelnd 130 000 tarangkiolemtr50 000 tarangiml 6 hwhnakhnakrrmathikarebngkxl praethsbngklaeths rthebngkxltawntk rthphihar rthcharkhnth aelarthoxthisa 390 000 tarangkiolemtr150 000 tarangiml 75 rxngphuwarachkarbxmeby aekhwnsinth aelabangswnkhxngrthmharastra rthkhuchrat aelarthkrnatka 320 000 tarangkiolemtr120 000 tarangiml 19 phuwarachkarinsphaphma praethsphma 440 000 tarangkiolemtr170 000 tarangiml 9 rxngphuwarachkarmnthlklangaelaebrar rthmthypraeths aelabangswnkhxngrthmharastra rthchttiskhrh aelarthoxthisa 270 000 tarangkiolemtr100 000 tarangiml 13 hwhnakhnakrrmathikarmthras rthxanthrpraeths rththmilnathu aelabangswnkhxngrthekrla rthkrnatka rthoxthisa aelarthetlngkhana 370 000 tarangkiolemtr140 000 tarangiml 38 phuwarachkarinsphapycab aekhwnpycab dinaednnkhrhlwngxislamabad rthpycab rthhryana rthhimaclpraeths rthchttiskhrh aeladinaednnkhrhlwngaehngchatiedli 250 000 tarangkiolemtr97 000 tarangiml 20 rxngphuwarachkarshmnthl rthxuttrpraethsaelarthxuttrakhnth 280 000 tarangkiolemtr110 000 tarangiml 48 rxngphuwarachkarinchwngkhxngkaraebngebngkxl kh s 1905 1913 mnthlxssmaelaebngkxltawnxxkidrbkarkxtngkhuninthanaekhtrxngphuwarachkar in kh s 1911 mnthlebngkxltawnxxkthukrwmkbmnthlebngkxlxikkhrng aelamnthlihmthangtawnxxkidklayipepnmnthlxssm ebngkxl phihar aelaoxthisa 14 thngthiekiywkhxng aekikh thngckrwrrdixinediy epnthngxyangimepnthangkar thngnawi thngkhahlwngtangphraxngkhhmayehtu aekikh macakkhainphasahindi khawa raj thihmaythungxanackr rth hruxckrwrrdixangxing aekikh 1 0 1 1 Interpretation Act 1889 52 amp 53 Vict c 63 s 18 Calcutta Kalikata The Imperial Gazetteer of India vol IX Bomjur to Central India Published under the Authority of His Majesty s Secretary of State for India in Council Oxford at the Clarendon Press 1908 p 260 Capital of the Indian Empire situated in 22 34 N and 88 22 E on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river within the Twenty four Parganas District Bengal Simla Town The Imperial Gazetteer of India vol XXII Samadhiala to Singhana Published under the Authority of His Majesty s Secretary of State for India in Council Oxford at the Clarendon Press 1908 p 260 Head quarters of Simla District Punjab and the summer capital of the Government of India situated on a transverse spur of the Central Himalayan system system in 31 6 N and 77 10 E at a mean elevation above sea level of 7 084 feet Vejdani Farzin 2015 Making History in Iran Education Nationalism and Print Culture Stanford CA Stanford University Press pp 24 25 ISBN 978 0 8047 9153 3 Although the official languages of administration in India shifted from Persian to English and Urdu in 1837 Persian continued to be taught and read there through the early twentieth century Everaert Christine 2010 Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu Leiden and Boston BRILL pp 253 254 ISBN 978 90 04 17731 4 It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration Hirst Jacqueline Suthren Zavros John 2011 Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia London and New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 44787 4 As the Mughal empire began to decline in the mid eighteenth century some of these regional administrations assumed a greater degree of power Amongst these was the East India Company a British trading company established by Royal Charter of Elizabeth I of England in 1600 The Company gradually expanded its influence in South Asia in the first instance through coastal trading posts at Surat Madras and Calcutta The British expanded their influence winning political control of Bengal and Bihar after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 From here the Company expanded its influence dramatically across the subcontinent By 1857 it had direct control over much of the region The great rebellion of that year however demonstrated the limitations of this commercial company s ability to administer these vast territories and in 1858 the Company was effectively nationalized with the British Crown assuming administrative control Hence began the period known as the British Raj which ended in 1947 with the partition of the subcontinent into the independent nation states of India and Pakistan Salomone Rosemary 2022 The Rise of English Global Politics and the Power of Language Oxford University Press p 236 ISBN 978 0 19 062561 0 Between 1858 when the British East India Company transferred power to British Crown rule the British Raj and 1947 when India gained independence English gradually developed into the language of government and education It allowed the Raj to maintain control by creating an elite gentry schooled in British mores primed to participate in public life and loyal to the Crown Steinback Susie L 2012 Understanding the Victorians Politics Culture and Society in Nineteenth Century Britain London and New York Routledge p 68 ISBN 978 0 415 77408 6 The rebellion was put down by the end of 1858 The British government passed the Government of India Act and began direct Crown rule This era was referred to as the British Raj though in practice much remained the same Ahmed Omar 2015 Studying Indian Cinema Auteur now an imprint of Liverpool University Press p 221 ISBN 9781800347380 The film opens with what is a lengthy prologue contextualising the time and place through a detailed voice over by Amitabh Bachchan We are told that the year is 1893 This is significant as it was the height of the British Raj a period of crown rule lasting from 1858 to 1947 Wright Edmund 2015 A Dictionary of World History Oxford University Press p 537 ISBN 978 0 19 968569 1 More than 500 Indian kingdoms and principalities existed during the British Raj period 1858 1947 The rule is also called Crown rule in India Fair C Christine 2014 Fighting to the End The Pakistan Army s Way of War Oxford University Press p 61 ISBN 978 0 19 989270 9 by 1909 the Government of India reflecting on 50 years of Crown rule after the rebellion could boast that Glanville Luke 2013 Sovereignty and the Responsibility to Protect A New History University of Chicago Press p 120 ISBN 978 0 226 07708 6 Quote Mill who was himself employed by the British East India company from the age of seventeen until the British government assumed direct rule over India in 1858 Pykett Lyn 2006 Wilkie Collins Oxford World s Classics Authors in Context Oxford University Press p 160 ISBN 978 0 19 284034 9 In part the Mutiny was a reaction against this upheavel of traditional Indian society The suppression of the Mutiny after a year of fighting was followed by the break up of the East India Company the exile of the deposed emperor and the establishment of the British Raj and direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by the British Lowe Lisa 2015 The Intimacies of Four Continents Duke University Press p 71 ISBN 978 0 8223 7564 7 Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1858 when following the 1857 Indian Rebellion the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj Vanderven Elizabeth 2019 National Education Systems Asia in Rury John L Tamura Eileen H b k The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education Oxford University Press p 213 227 222 ISBN 978 0 19 934003 3 During the British East India Company s domination of the Indian subcontinent 1757 1858 and the subsequent British Raj 1858 1947 it was Western style education that came to be promoted by many as the base upon which a national and uniform education system should be built Lapidus Ira M 2014 A History of Islamic Societies 3 ed Cambridge University Press p 393 ISBN 978 0 521 51430 9 Table 14 Muslim India outline chronologyMughal Empire 1526 1858 Akbar I 1556 1605 Aurengzeb 1658 1707 British victory at Plassey 1757 Britain becomes paramount power 1818British Raj 1858 1947 Bowen H V Mancke Elizabeth Reid John G 2012 Britain s Oceanic Empire Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds C 1550 1850 Cambridge University Press p 106 ISBN 978 1 107 02014 6 Quote British India meanwhile was itself the powerful metropolis of its own colonial empire the Indian empire British Empire Relations with Bhutan British Empire Relations with Nepal British Indian Passport of Muhammad Ali Jinnah khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedimemux 2013 02 10 subkhnemux 2016 12 23 14 0 14 1 Imperial Gazetteer of India vol IV 1909 p 46brrnanukrm aekikhaehlngxangxingekiywkbdankarsarwc aekikh Allan J T Wolseley Haig H H Dodwell The Cambridge Shorter History of India 1934 996 pp Bandhu Deep Chand History of Indian National Congress 2003 405pp Bandyopadhyay Sekhar 2004 From Plassey to Partition A History of Modern India Orient Longman Pp xx 548 ISBN 978 81 250 2596 2 Bayly C A 1990 Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire The New Cambridge History of India Cambridge and London Cambridge University Press Pp 248 ISBN 978 0 521 38650 0 Bose Sugata Jalal Ayesha 2003 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy 2nd ed Routledge ISBN 0 415 30787 2 Brown Judith M 1994 First published 1984 Modern India The Origins of an Asian Democracy Oxford University Press Pp xiii 474 ISBN 978 0 19 873113 9 Bose Sugata Jalal Ayesha 2004 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy 2nd ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 30787 1 Chhabra G S 2005 First published 1971 Advanced Study in the History of Modern India vol III 1920 1947 Revised ed New Delhi Lotus Press p 2 ISBN 978 81 89093 08 2 Copland Ian 2001 India 1885 1947 The Unmaking of an Empire Seminar Studies in History Series Harlow and London Pearson Longmans Pp 160 ISBN 978 0 582 38173 5 Coupland Reginald India A Re Statement Oxford University Press 1945 Dodwell H H ed The Cambridge History of India Volume 6 The Indian Empire 1858 1918 With Chapters on the Development of Administration 1818 1858 1932 660 pp online edition also published as vol 5 of the Cambridge History of the British Empire Gilmour David The British in India A Social History of the Raj 2018 expanded edition of The Ruling Caste Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj 2007 Excerpt and text search Herbertson A J and O J R Howarth eds The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire 6 vol 1914 online vol 2 on Asia pp 1 328 on India James Lawrence Raj The Making and Unmaking of British India 2000 Judd Denis 2004 The Lion and the Tiger The Rise and Fall of the British Raj 1600 1947 Oxford and New York Oxford University Press Pp xiii 280 ISBN 978 0 19 280358 0 Louis William Roger and Judith M Brown eds The Oxford History of the British Empire 5 vol 1999 2001 with numerous articles on the Raj Low D A 1993 Eclipse of Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 45754 5 Ludden David E 2002 India And South Asia A Short History Oxford Oneworld ISBN 978 1 85168 237 9 Majumdar Ramesh Chandra Raychaudhuri Hemchandra Datta Kalikinkar 1950 An advanced history of India Majumdar R C ed 1970 British paramountcy and Indian renaissance The history and culture of the Indian people Bombay Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Mansingh Surjit The A to Z of India 2010 a concise historical encyclopaedia Marshall P J 2001 The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire 400 pp Cambridge and London Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 00254 7 Markovits Claude 2004 A History of Modern India 1480 1950 Anthem Press ISBN 978 1 84331 004 4 Metcalf Barbara D Metcalf Thomas R 2006 A Concise History of Modern India Cambridge Concise Histories Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press Pp xxxiii 372 ISBN 978 0 521 68225 1 Moon Penderel The British Conquest and Dominion of India 2 vol 1989 1235pp the fullest scholarly history of political and military events from a British top down perspective Oldenburg Philip 2007 India Movement for Freedom Encarta Encyclopedia khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedimemux 31 October 2009 Panikkar K M 1953 Asia and Western dominance 1498 1945 by K M Panikkar London G Allen and Unwin Peers Douglas M 2006 India under Colonial Rule 1700 1885 Harlow and London Pearson Longmans Pp xvi 163 ISBN 978 0 582 31738 3 Riddick John F The history of British India a chronology 2006 excerpt and text search covers 1599 1947 Riddick John F Who Was Who in British India 1998 covers 1599 1947 Robb Peter 2002 A History of India Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 34549 2 Sarkar Sumit 2004 First published 1983 Modern India 1885 1947 Delhi Macmillan ISBN 978 0 333 90425 1 Smith Vincent A 1958 The Oxford History of India 3rd ed the Raj section was written by Percival Spear Somervell D C The Reign of King George V 1936 covers Raj 1910 35 pp 80 84 282 91 455 64 online free Spear Percival 1990 First published 1965 A History of India Volume 2 New Delhi and London Penguin Books Pp 298 ISBN 978 0 14 013836 8 Stein Burton 2001 First published 1998 A History of India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 565446 2 Stein Burton 2010 First published 1998 A History of India 2nd ed John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Thompson Edward and G T Garratt Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India 1934 690 pages scholarly survey 1599 1933 excerpt and text search Wolpert Stanley 2004 A New History of India 7th ed Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 516677 4 Wolpert Stanley ed Encyclopedia of India 4 vol 2005 comprehensive coverage by scholars Wolpert Stanley A 2006 Shameful Flight The Last Years of the British Empire in India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 539394 1 aehlngxangxingekiywkbhwkhxthithuksuksaepnphiess aekikh Baker David 1993 Colonialism in an Indian Hinterland The Central Provinces 1820 1920 Delhi Oxford University Press Pp xiii 374 ISBN 978 0 19 563049 7 Bayly Christopher 2000 Empire and Information Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India 1780 1870 Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society Cambridge University Press Pp 426 ISBN 978 0 521 66360 1 Bayly Christopher Harper Timothy 2005 Forgotten Armies The Fall of British Asia 1941 1945 Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01748 1 subkhnemux 22 September 2013 Bayly Christopher Harper Timothy 2007 Forgotten Wars Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 02153 2 subkhnemux 21 September 2013 Bayly Christopher Alan Imperial Meridian The British Empire and the World 1780 1830 Routledge 2016 Bose Sudhindra 1916 Some Aspects of British Rule in India Studies in the Social Sciences vol V Iowa City The University pp 79 81 Bosma Ulbe 2011 Emigration Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century EGO European History Online Mainz Institute of European History retrieved March 25 2021 pdf Brown Judith M Gandhi Prisoner of Hope 1991 scholarly biography Brown Judith M Louis Wm Roger b k 2001 Oxford History of the British Empire The Twentieth Century Oxford University Press pp 800 ISBN 978 0 19 924679 3 Buckland C E Dictionary of Indian Biography 1906 495 pp full text Carrington Michael May 2013 Officers Gentlemen and Murderers Lord Curzon s campaign against collisions between Indians and Europeans 1899 1905 Modern Asian Studies 47 3 780 819 doi 10 1017 S0026749X12000686 S2CID 147335168 Chandavarkar Rajnarayan 1998 Imperial Power and Popular Politics Class Resistance and the State in India 1850 1950 Cambridge Studies in Indian History amp Society Cambridge University Press Pp 400 ISBN 978 0 521 59692 3 Chatterji Joya 1993 Bengal Divided Hindu Communalism and Partition 1932 1947 Cambridge University Press Pp 323 ISBN 978 0 521 52328 8 Copland Ian 2002 Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire 1917 1947 Cambridge Studies in Indian History amp Society Cambridge University Press Pp 316 ISBN 978 0 521 89436 4 Das Manmath Nath 1964 India under Morley and Minto politics behind revolution repression and reforms G Allen and Unwin ISBN 9780049540026 Davis Mike 2001 Late Victorian Holocausts Verso Books ISBN 978 1 85984 739 8 Dewey Clive Anglo Indian Attitudes The Mind of the Indian Civil Service 2003 Ewing 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matters political economic industrial educational etc during the period 1919 1947 online 1930 edition 1921 edition 1919 1947 editions bthkhwamekiywkbprawtisastrniyngepnokhrng khunsamarthchwywikiphiediyidodykarephimetimkhxmulduephimthi sthaniyxy prawtisastr ekhathungcak https th wikipedia org w index php title britichrach amp oldid 10477564, wikipedia, วิกิ หนังสือ, หนังสือ, ห้องสมุด,

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